Let’s take a closer look at the verb ‘to persuade’. According to the dictionary, it means ‘to make someone realise or feel that something is true or right’. Rhetoric is not concerned with what is true, but with which decisions we should make – what we should do or think. And to make someone realise or feel that something is the right thing (to do or think), we need to give good reasons.
Persuasion in real life
An example illustrates how persuasion works in real life: high prices for specialised medicines have sparked intense debate in many European countries. Should the price of a medicine determine whether it is offered, or should it be solely about how well the medicine treats disease? The debate shows us that there are good reasons for and against prioritising medicines – and strong positions – exactly as the dictionary definition suggests: we differ in what we feel is the right thing (to do). On the one hand, there are good reasons to prioritise medicines; for example, particularly expensive medicines undermine the rest of the medicines budget, and that hurts patients. On the other hand, you can argue that we should not let the cost of medicines decide who gets necessary but expensive medicines – or medicines that extend life by days or weeks – because the losers are patients who have no say over which disease they have. In both cases we form our view on the basis of good reasons (economic or medical, for example) as well as strong positions (all patients should have the right to the best possible treatment).
The situation is decisive
In ancient Greece, Aristotle defined rhetoric as ‘the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion’. Today we still hold on to Aristotle’s ideas. Different situations call for different means. If we use the same arguments, the same tone and the same examples in every situation, no one will remember what we tell them – because they are not convinced that it affects them or matters to them. The art of persuasion is about adapting your messages and making them relevant to different audiences.
Credibility, reason and emotion
If we dig a little deeper, there are three elements we can use when we want to persuade someone of something: credibility, reason and emotion – or, in Greek, ethos, logos and pathos.
Credibility is the key to getting your audience to listen to you. If they see you as credible, they are more likely to be persuaded by what you say. But credibility doesn’t come out of the blue. You have to earn it. You can think of ethos as a bank account from which you can withdraw or deposit credibility. Returning to the medicines example, it makes a big difference who you are – a doctor, a hospital CEO or a family member – when you argue that we need to prioritise medicines. Because as soon as we look at who is communicating, we start looking for the motives or reasons they might have.
Reason is the next natural step. Without logical arguments, it will be hard for anyone to win support and hold on to it over time. Should we prioritise medicines or not? There are valid arguments on both sides – but it is our values, circumstances, background and political beliefs that determine which arguments appeal to us. If we believe all patients should have the right to the best possible treatment, we have to accept higher costs – and in some countries that will mean paying more tax. To persuade your audience of something, you need to know them and their values and understand what they believe in.
Emotion is what moves us to act; it is the fuel of human ambition. Let’s draw on the example above again. You can argue that prioritising medicines will undermine equality – which is likely to stir strong emotions. Picture patients who have to live with severe pain, or who die because they don’t get the right medical treatment. Picture the powerlessness and grief of families who cannot help or pay for medicines. It is hard not to identify with them – we tend to feel, or at least agree, that it is a difficult situation. On the other hand, emotions also play an important role if we argue for prioritising medicines, because rising costs are likely to hit other patients in the system and will probably weaken their chances of recovery.
Good reasons and strong positions
To sum up: rhetoric is about the ability to persuade, and persuasion is about good reasons and strong positions – whether the issue is rising medicine costs, growing numbers of migrants dreaming of a better life in Europe or implementing new strategies in a company. If you find both good reasons and strong positions (that appeal to your audience) in any situation, your audience is more likely to see you as credible, accept your arguments and ultimately get behind your messages.
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